Close

Results 1 to 6 of 6
  1. #1
    Stranger
    Join Date
    Oct 2005
    Posts
    2
    Rep Power
    0

    Default Human pheromones and sexual attraction from medical journal 2004

    visit-red-300x50PNG
    Review
    Human pheromones and sexual

    attraction
    Karl

    Grammer
    a,

    Bernhard

    Fink
    a,[/

    font]*, Nick

    Neave
    b

    [size=

    1]
    a[/size]
    Ludwig–Boltzmann-Institute for Urban Ethology, c/o Institute of

    Anthropology, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, A-1090 Vienna,

    Austria

    b
    Human

    Cognitive Neuroscience Unit, School of Psychology and Sport Sciences, Northumbria University, Newcastle upon Tyne,

    NE1 8ST, UK

    Received 30 April 2004; accepted 19 August

    2004
    Abstract
    [size=

    1]
    Olfactory communication is very common amongst animals, and since the discovery of an accessory olfactory

    system in humans, possible

    human olfactory communication has gained considerable scientific interest. The

    importance of the human sense of smell has by far been

    underestimated in the past. Humans and other primates have

    been regarded as primarily ‘optical animals’ with highly developed powers of

    vision but a relatively undeveloped

    sense of smell. In recent years this assumption has undergone major revision. Several studies indicate

    that

    humans indeed seem to use olfactory communication and are even able to produce and perceive certain

    pheromones; recent studies have found

    that pheromones may play an important role in the behavioural and

    reproduction biology of humans. In this article we review the present

    evidence of the effect of human pheromones

    and discuss the role of olfactory cues in human sexual

    behaviour.
    [/size]
    #
    2004 Elsevier

    Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.

    Keywords:

    Pheromone; Human; Sexual attraction; Mate preferences; Menstrual cycle; Oral

    contraception

    1.

    Introduction
    The importance of pheromones in intra-species

    communication

    has long been known in insects. A classical example

    is bombykol, the sexual attractant of the

    butterfly
    Bombyx

    mori
    . Bombykol is

    produced by the female butterflies in

    odour glands of the abdomen. Male butterflies detect the

    pheromone with

    sensory cells, located in the antennae and

    can find the females by the gradient of her odour. As little as

    one

    molecule of bombykol is enough to stimulate the

    receptor cells and facilitate the orientation reaction.

    Several

    studies suggest that pheromones play an important role also

    in mammalian social behaviour and thus in

    humans as

    well.

    www.elsevier.com/locate/ejogrb

    European

    Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and

    Reproductive Biology 118 (2005) 135–142

    * Corresponding author. Tel.:

    +43 1 4277 54769; fax: +43 1 4277

    9547.


    0301-2115/$

    – see front matter
    # 2004 Elsevier Ireland

    Ltd. All rights

    reserved.

    doi:10.1016/j.ejogrb.2004.08.010

    The present

    article reviews the current evidence how

    pheromones

    in
    fluence human life and interactions

    and

    discusses the consequences for human sexual attraction

    and

    mate-choice.

    1.1.

    Smell
    According toKohl et al.

    [1] the sense

    of smell has largely

    been underestimated in reproductive behaviours and it has

    long been assumed that humans

    are

    microsmatic(poor

    smellers) and rely essentially on visual and verbal

    cues

    when assessing potential mates. Certainly visual stimuli

    play a key role in the perceptions of others

    within a

    sociosexual context, especially at a distance, but when

    individuals get closer and personal intimacy

    is increased, it

    is likely that smell also plays a key role a variety of

    sociosexual behaviours. Recent

    studies have indeed

    suggested that olfaction (conscious and unconscious)

    can play a

    signi
    ficant role in human reproductive

    biology.

    Zajonc
    s

    [2]

    affective

    primacy
    hypothesis states that

    both

    positive and negative affect can be evoked with minimal

    stimulus input and only minor cognitive

    involvement.

    Olfactory signals induce emotional responses even if an

    olfactory stimulus is not consciously

    perceived: this is due

    to the fact that olfactory receptors not only send projections

    to the neocortex for

    conscious processing (e.g. the nature of

    a particular aroma) but also to the limbic system for

    emotional

    processing (e.g. memories and affect associated

    with a particular

    smell).

    1.2.

    Pheromones
    The term

    pheromonewas introduced by Karlson and

    Luscher

    [3] and it

    derives from the Greek words

    pherein

    (to carry) and

    hormon

    (to excite). Pheromones are referred

    to as

    ecto-hormonesas they are chemical messengers that

    are emitted into the

    environment from the body where they

    can then activate

    speci
    fic physiological or

    behavioural

    responses in other individuals of the same species.

    According to McClintock

    [4] pheromones

    can be divided

    into two classes. Firstly,

    signal

    pheromones
    produce

    shortterm

    behavioural changes and seem to act as attractants and

    repellents. Secondly,

    primer

    pheromones
    produce

    longerlasting

    changes in behaviour via their activation of

    the

    hypothalamic
    pituitary[/

    font]adrenal (HPA) axis

    [4]. In

    particular,

    it is assumed that primer pheromones trigger the

    secretion of GnRH from the hypothalamus, which in

    turn

    triggers the release of gonadotropins (LH, FSH) from the

    pituitary gland. These gonadotropins

    in
    fluence gonadal

    hormone

    secretion, e.g. follicle maturation in the ovaries in

    females, testosterone and sperm production in males.

    In

    support, in various species the short-term exposures of

    females to males have been associated with a

    corresponding

    rise in testosterone

    [5]. Four

    speci
    fic functions of

    pheromones

    have been determined: opposite-sex attractants,

    same-sex repellents,

    mother
    infant bonding attractants

    and

    menstrual cycle modulators

    [6]. It is the

    first category that

    this review

    will focus upon though may draw upon evidence

    from the other categories wherever

    relevant.

    1.3. Pheromone

    detection
    In most mammals, a specialised region of the

    olfactory

    system called the vomeronasal organ (VNO), also referred to

    as

    Jacobsons organ

    is responsible for pheromone

    detection. The principal evidence that the

    VNO plays a

    role in mammalian pheromone detection comes from lesion

    studies where removal of the VNO produces

    reliable

    impairments in reproductive behaviours

    [7]. The VNO

    is

    located above the hard palate on both sides of the nasal

    septum and it is lined with receptor cells whose

    axons

    project to the accessory olfactory bulb, which sends its

    projects to the hypothalamic nuclei

    [8]. Pheromones

    can

    thus potentially in
    fluence

    sexual and reproductive behaviours

    and endocrine function via the HPA axis

    [9].

    There

    has been some scepticism concerning the ability of humans

    to detect and respond to pheromones due to the

    facts that

    VNO appears to vestigial in some primates, and the

    accessory olfactory bulb is not discernable in

    humans

    [9].

    However

    , it has since been reported that humans do

    possess a functional VNO that responds to pheromones

    (even in

    picogram amounts) in a sex-speci
    fic

    manner

    [10
    12][f

    ont=AdvP41153C]. Recently, the

    identi
    fication of a

    pheromone

    receptor gene expressed in human olfactory mucosa has

    further strengthened the case for a

    functioning VNO

    [13].

    Furthe

    r evidence comes from patients with

    Kallmann
    s

    syndrome, which occurs

    due to the underdevelopment of

    the olfactory bulb in the embryo and minimal GnRH

    secretions from the

    hypothalamus. Individuals have

    underdeveloped gonads, lack secondary sexual characteristics,

    are anosmic, and

    preliminary research indicates that

    they show no response to pheromones (personal communication

    cited in

    [1]).


    n
    1.4. Pheromone

    production
    The main producers of human pheromones are

    the

    apocrine glands located in the axillae and pubic region. The

    high concentration of apocrine glands found

    in the armpits

    led to the term

    axillary

    organ
    , which is considered

    an

    independent

    organ[

    size=2]’ [/size]
    of human odour production. Apocrine

    glands develop in the embryo,

    but become functional only

    with the onset of puberty. At sexual maturation, they

    produce steroidal secretions

    derived from 16-androstenes

    (androstenone and androstenol) via testosterone, and as

    such, the concentrations

    of several 16-androstenes

    is

    signi
    ficantly higher in males

    [14]. Freshly

    produced

    apocrine secretions are odourless but are transformed into

    the odorous androstenone and androstenol

    by aerobic

    coryeform bacteria

    [15]. In the

    vagina, aliphatic acids

    (referred to as copulins) are secreted and their odour varies

    with the menstrual cycle

    [16]. It is now

    possible to isolate

    K. Grammer

    136 et al. / European Journal of

    Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 118 (2005)

    135
    142

    and manufacture synthetic human pheromones and such

    compounds are often used in research

    as they are relatively

    easy to make, convenient to store, and easy to

    apply.
    1.5. Pheromone effects on animal

    reproductive

    behaviours
    Preliminary studies in the 1960s

    demonstrated that

    exposure to boar odour elicited the mating stance in females.

    Subsequent experiments showed

    that application of male

    urine or semen to the

    female
    s snout also produced the

    same

    effect. Studies have appeared to demonstrate a number

    of

    con
    firmed effects of pheromones

    in animals. Firstly

    the

    Lee-Boot

    Effect
    [17]

    describes the effects of the social

    environment on the female

    reproductive cycle. The authors

    noted that when female mice were housed 4 in a cage their

    oestrous cycles

    became synchronised and extended.

    Secondly, the

    Whitten

    effect
    [18]

    confirmed that female

    mice housed together displayed an extended oestrous cycle,

    but further noted

    that when a male was introduced the

    females ovulated synchronously

    3
    4 days later. The

    substance was

    found to be androgen-based pheromones

    secreted in the

    male
    s urine.

    Thirdly, the

    Bruce

    effect
    [19]

    describes the effect of

    housing pregnant mice with males that were

    not their

    original mates. Within 48 h of such pairings,

    signi
    ficantly

    more miscarriages

    were observed in the females. Subsequent

    mating with the new male within

    3
    6 days then always

    followed the

    failed pregnancy. The inclusion of castrated or

    juvenile male strangers had no such effects. This appears

    to

    be a male tactic of blocking the pregnancy by a previous

    male and bringing the female quickly into

    oestrous. Finally

    the
    Vandenburgh

    effect
    [20]

    notes that young female rats

    exposed to adult males for 20 days

    after weaning entered

    puberty earlier than female pups not exposed to males. Male

    pheromones stimulate

    puberty, probably by releasing LH,

    which stimulates follicular growth, presumably so that they

    can mate

    earlier. A related effect was noted in that female

    mice housed alone attain puberty earlier than female

    mice

    housed together, females can thus delay puberty in

    their

    conspeci
    fics, probably by

    suppressing LH and FSH release

    from the anterior pituitary

    gland.

    1.6. Pheromones and human reproductive

    behaviours
    Several authors have speculated that pheromones

    may

    in
    fluence human sociosexual

    behaviours (e.g.

    [21,22])

    and

    evidence for the effects of putative pheromones on human

    sexual behaviours has come from several

    sources:

    1. Human correlates of animal effects

    McClintock

    [23] reported

    that human female college

    students demonstrated synchrony in their menstrual

    cycles when housed in shared

    accommodation (Lee
    Boot

    effect).

    Preti et al.
    [24]

    extended this research by applying

    extracts of female sweat to the

    upper lips of female

    volunteers three times per week for 4 months. At the end

    of this time the participants

    showed signi
    ficantly

    greater

    menstrual synchrony than volunteers in a control group.

    Cutler et al.

    [25] also

    showed that the application of male

    axillary secretions to the upper lips of female volunteers

    also had a

    regulatory effect on the menstrual cycle

    (Whitten effect). Ellis and Garber

    [26] showed

    that girls

    in stepfather-present homes experienced faster puberty

    than girls in single-mother homes, the

    younger the

    daughter when the new male arrived on the scene then the

    earlier her pubertal maturation

    (Vandenburgh effect).

    2. Laboratory studies

    In an early report, Kirk-Smith et al.

    [27] asked 12

    male

    and female undergraduates to rate photographs of people,

    animals and buildings using 159-point bipolar

    scales

    (e.g.

    unattractive
    attractive),

    while wearing surgical masks

    either impregnated with androstenol or left undoctored.

    Mood ratings were also

    completed. In the presence of

    androstenol, male and female stimuli were also rated as

    being

    warmer

    and

    more

    friendly
    . Van Toller et al.

    [28]



    showed that skin conductance in volunteers exposed to

    androstenone was higher than that of

    non-exposed

    volunteers thereby providing evidence as to the

    physiological effects of pheromone exposure.

    However,

    Benton and Wastell
    [29]

    had groups of females read

    either a neutral or a sexually arousing

    passage whilst

    exposed to either androstenol or a placebo substance.

    While sexual arousal was higher in the

    arousal

    condition, the authors found no evidence that

    exposure

    to androstenol had

    in
    fluenced sexual

    feelings.

    Filsinger et al.
    [30]

    asked males and females to rate

    vignettes of a

    fictional target male and female

    using

    semantic differentials, and also to provide a selfassessment

    of mood. The test materials had been

    sealed

    into plastic bags, which were either impregnated with

    androstenol, androstenone, a synthetic musk

    control, and

    a no-odour control. Females exposed to androstenone

    produced lower sexual attractiveness ratings

    of the target

    male, while males exposed to androstenol perceived the

    male targets to be more sexually

    attractive.

    The interpretation from such studies is further

    complicated by two factors. Firstly, female

    olfactory

    sensitivity is moderated by the menstrual cycle with

    smell sensitivity peaking at ovulation

    [31]. Benton

    [32]



    reported that androstenol application

    in
    fluenced ratings

    of subjective

    mood at ovulation, and Grammer
    [21]

    found

    that females rated androstenone differently at

    various

    phases of their menstrual cycle. Secondly, the use of oral

    contraception may affect smell sensitivity

    and gonadal

    hormone levels thereby possibly disrupting pheromone

    detection. Use of the contraceptive pill does

    indeed

    appear to in
    fluence female

    perception of

    androstenone

    [21]
    .

    More recently Thorne et al.
    [33]

    employed a repeatedmeasures,

    double blind, balanced crossover

    design to

    assess the possible

    in
    fluence of menstrual cycle

    phase

    K. Grammer et al. / European Journal of Obstetrics &

    Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 118 (2005)

    135
    142

    137

    and contraceptive

    pill use. Sixteen pill and non-pill users

    were tested during both menses and mid-cycle in

    both

    pheromone-present and pheromone-absent conditions.

    During each session (four in all) the volunteers rated

    male

    vignette characters, and photographs of male faces, on

    various aspects of attractiveness. Pheromone

    exposure

    resulted in signi
    ficantly

    higher attractiveness ratings of

    vignette characters, and faces. Use of the contraceptive

    pill or menstrual

    cycle phase had equivocal effects on

    some vignette items but neither had any

    in
    fluence on

    female ratings of male

    facial attractiveness.

    Not all laboratory studies have found positive results

    however (e.g.

    [34]), and some

    authors are sceptical that

    higher primate reproductive behaviours are

    signi
    ficantly

    in
    [font

    =AdvP41153C]fl
    uenced by pheromones

    [35]. Thus,

    while the current

    scienti
    fic

    opinion regarding the existence of human

    pheromones remains positive, opinion remains divided as

    to whether

    such substances do in fact in
    fluence

    human

    sociosexual behaviours. This is probably due to the fact

    that while a wealth of laboratory-based studies

    has been

    conducted, very different methodologies mean that

    comparisons between studies are

    dif
    ficult.

    Furthermore,

    methodologically solid double blind, placebo-controlled,

    crossover studies are few and far

    between, the Thorne et

    al.
    [33]

    study being an exception. However, that study

    was laboratory based

    and simply required participants to

    rate the attractiveness of hypothetical opposite-sex

    characters based on

    written descriptions and photographs.

    The ecological validity of such laboratory-based

    studies is therefore

    questionable.

    3. Real-life studies

    While laboratory studies are able to exert more control

    over the varying

    factors involved, of potential greater

    relevance are studies assessing the effects of pheromones

    in real-life

    situations. Early studies were, however, not

    promising. For example, Morris and Udry

    [36]

    prepared

    aliphatic acid smears, formulated to mimic

    concentrations

    shown to be effective in enhancing monkey

    reproductive behaviour. The solution was smeared

    on

    the chests of 62 married women on eight randomly

    assigned nights through three menstrual cycles.

    Volunteers

    did not report any increase in sexual intercourse on

    these test nights. However, Cowley and

    Brooksbank

    [37]



    asked males and females to wear a necklace either

    containing an opposite-sex pheromone or a

    control

    substance while they slept. The next day, they found that

    women who had worn the male pheromones in

    their

    necklace reported

    signi
    ficantly more interactions

    with

    males than the control group.

    Two studies which have often been cited as the

    strongest evidence yet

    provided for the in
    fluence

    of

    pheromones on human sociosexual behaviour are those

    of Cutler et al.

    [38] and McCoy

    and Pitino

    [39].

    Both

    studies employed double blind, placebo-controlled

    methods and focussed upon the effects of

    synthetic

    pheromones on self-reported sociosexual behaviours in

    young men

    [38] and women

    [39]. In the

    first study

    [38] 38

    male

    volunteers recorded the occurrence of six sociosexual

    behaviours (petting/affection/kissing; formal

    dates;

    informal dates; sleeping next to a partner; sexual

    intercourse; and masturbation) over a 2-week

    baseline

    period. Over the next 6 weeks the volunteers kept

    the

    same records while daily applying a male pheromone or a

    control substance added to their usual aftershave

    lotion.

    The authors reported that a

    signi
    ficantly higher proportion

    of

    pheromone users compared to placebo users

    showed an increase from baseline in

    sexual

    intercourse


    and

    sleeping next to a romantic

    partner
    . In general 58%

    of the

    pheromone group compared to 19% of the placebo

    group showed increases in two or more behaviours

    compared to

    baseline; 41% of the pheromone group

    compared to 9.5% of the placebo group showed increases

    in three or more

    behaviours compared to baseline.

    In the second study
    [39]

    36 female volunteers recorded

    the occurrence of the same six

    socio-sexual behaviours and

    an additional behaviour

    male

    approaches
    over a

    2-week

    baseline[/size

    ]
    period. Over the next 6 weeks they then

    either

    applied a synthetic female pheromone or a control

    substance added to their usual perfume on a daily

    basis.

    While the groups did not differ in their sociosexual

    behaviours at baseline, a

    signi
    ficantly higher proportion

    of

    the pheromone group showed increases in the following

    behaviours:

    sexual

    intercourse
    ,

    sleeping next to

    a

    partner
    ,

    formal

    dates
    and

    petting/affection/kissing[/fon

    t].

    However, as pheromone exposure can shift the

    timing of

    ovulation, the authors recalculated the data to only include

    the

    first experimental cycle. After these

    recalculations the

    pheromone group only

    signi
    ficantly differed from

    the

    placebo group in
    sexual

    intercourse
    and

    formal

    dating
    .

    In terms of percentages,

    three or more sociosexual

    behaviours increased over baseline in 74% of pheromone

    users but only 23% of placebo

    users. As there was no

    increase in self-reported masturbation the authors argued

    that the changes did not

    re
    flect changes in

    sexual

    motivation, but that the pheromones had

    ‘‘positive sexual

    attractant

    effects
    . . .’’

    (p. 374).

    The results of these studies appear to provide

    impressive

    evidence for the effects of synthetic pheromones

    on sexual attractiveness. However, there are a

    number of

    methodological problems with the studies,

    which make the

    findings less emphatic. Firstly,

    the

    studies did not control for the attractiveness of the

    volunteers nor make allowance for this when

    allocating

    the conditions. If for example the pheromone groups had

    contained slightly more attractive

    individuals than the

    control groups, then subsequent positive effects attributed

    to pheromones may be

    misleading. Secondly, all the

    data were of the self-report kind (prone to error and

    subjective bias especially

    as

    back[s

    ize=2]fi
    lling

    was allowed in

    the second study) and as such no objective record of

    the

    putative effects of pheromone versus placebo were

    obtained. Thirdly the groups differed widely in terms

    of

    K. Grammer
    138

    et al. / European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology

    118 (2005)

    135
    142

    their dating status with some being married, some in

    long-term relationships and others

    being single. Those in

    relationships would have certainly recorded more of

    certain sociosexual behaviours than

    the single volunteers,

    it would have been better if the entire subject pool were

    single males seeking more

    dating/sex opportunities.

    Fourthly, the baseline period of 2 weeks is

    dif
    ficult to

    equate with a testing

    period of 6 weeks even though

    average differences from baseline were analysed. How

    can we be sure that the

    social behaviour of the volunteers

    changed not as a result of pheromone exposure but by

    other factors during

    the experimental period, e.g. going

    on holiday, celebrating at an

    of
    fice party? While the

    actual

    behaviours were recorded, the context within

    which those behaviours occurred was not controlled for.

    The

    evidence from these two studies thus indicates

    that certain sociosexual behaviours are increased in

    males and

    females who wear pheromones, compared to

    baseline. However, the studies do not convincingly show

    that the

    pheromone and placebo groups were well

    matched; that the baseline and experimental conditions

    were matched in

    terms of various temporal and

    behavioural factors; that objective changes in sociosexual

    behaviours did occur;

    and that the pheromones served as

    a

    sexual

    attractants
    rather than say a mood

    enhancer,

    con
    fidence builder,

    etc.

    4. Genetic signalling

    Various

    good

    genes
    theories of sexual selection

    have

    emphasised the importance of

    immunocompetence

    [40,41]

    in that females can obtain good genes for their

    offspring by

    mating with males whose genes are

    complementary to their own. A possible mechanism

    by which this can be

    achieved is via body odour. The

    major histocompatibility complex (MHC) is a large

    chromosomal region

    containing closely linked polymorphic

    genes that play a role in immunological self/

    non-self recognition; this

    genetic information is relayed

    by androgen-based pheromones

    [42]. Numerous

    studies

    in rodents have now established that MHC genotype is

    involved in odour production, and such odours are

    used in

    individual discrimination

    [43]. House

    mice learn the

    MHC identity of their family during development and

    avoid mating with individuals carrying

    familial MHC

    genes; they do so through the use of odour cues from

    urine (e.g.

    [44,45]). Is

    there any evidence that humans

    possess these abilities?

    Some studies have shown that women seem to

    prefer

    the odours of immunocompatible men. Wedekind et

    al.

    [46]

    HLA-typed (Human Leukocyte Antigen is the

    human MHC) 49 women and

    44 men and asked the

    women to rate the attractiveness of the odours of t-shirts

    worn by three MHC-similar and

    three MHC-dissimilar

    men.Women rated the odour of the MHC-dissimilar men

    as

    more

    pleasant
    , and this odour was

    signi
    ficantly more

    likely to remind

    them of their own mate
    s

    odour.

    Interestingly, the preferences of women taking an oral

    contraceptive were

    reversed
    they preferred the

    MHCsimilar

    odours. This could be due to the fact that oral

    contraceptives mimic the effects of pregnancy,

    and

    pregnant females may be attracted to MHC-similar

    individuals who are likely to be close kin and

    potential

    reproductive helpers.

    In a similar study, Thornhill and Gangstad

    [47]



    measured bilateral physical traits in males and females

    and then asked the volunteers to wear the same

    T-shirt for

    two consecutive nights. Opposite-sex participants then

    rated the shirts for

    pleasantness,

    sexiness

    and

    [fo

    nt=AdvP41153C]intensity
    ;

    donor
    s facial attractiveness was

    also

    assessed by different opposite-sex volunteers. Non-pill

    users in the fertile phase of their menstrual

    cycle gave the

    T-shirts worn by symmetrical males higher ratings; this

    was not seen in females using the

    contraceptive pill, or in

    females at unfertile phases of their cycle. Female

    symmetry had no

    in
    fluence on male ratings. The

    authors

    proposed that the so-called

    scent of

    symmetry
    is an

    honest indicator of

    male genetic quality.

    In a real-life study of actual mate choices, Ober et

    al.

    [48]

    found evidence for HLA-dependent mate preferences

    in a population

    of Hutterites (a small, genetically

    isolated religious sect). They found that couples were less

    likely to

    share MHC haplotypes than chance, and in

    couples that had a similar MHC they demonstrated

    unusually long

    inter-birth intervals (unconscious avoidance

    of inbreeding?).

    Milinski and Wedekind

    [49] HLA-typed

    males and

    females and then asked them to smell 36 scents

    commonly used in perfume/aftershave. They rated

    each

    scent on whether they liked it or not, and whether they

    would use it on themselves. The authors reported

    a

    signi
    ficant correlation between

    HLA and scent scoring

    for themselves but not for others, showing the people

    unconsciously select perfumes to

    enhance their own body

    odours that reveal their genetic

    make-up.

    1.7. Pheromones and the battle of the

    sexes
    Differential parental investment theory

    [50] predicts

    that

    when looking for long-term relationships females should

    seek out and choose males who are ready to invest

    resources

    in their offspring. This minimizes female investment, but

    maximizes overall investment through added

    male assistance.

    In contrast, males are expected either to attempt

    copulation frequently and with as many

    fertile females as

    possible, or to develop a long-term pair bond. This helps to

    ensure that either a large

    number of offspring survive

    without

    signi
    ficant paternal investment, or

    that male parental

    investment occurs primarily when another male does not

    father offspring.

    According to

    this theory, it is adaptive for females and

    males to develop and use cognition in mate selection, which

    takes

    into account biological constraints. Thus, mate

    selection is a task of information processing, and

    evolution

    K. Grammer et al. / European Journal of Obstetrics

    & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 118 (2005)

    135
    142

    139

    would have

    favoured individuals who were able to quickly

    and reliably process information that allowed them to

    make

    appropriate mating decisions. Adaptive cognition could be

    expected to lead to optimal decision-making

    under a wide

    spectrum of socio-economic constraints. The existence of

    ubiquitous sex

    speci
    fic differences in mate selection

    criteria

    [51]

    attests that male and female cognition is adapted to

    the

    biological constraints of mate selection.

    Neither males nor females can perceive ovulation in

    humans

    consciously. This is surprising in the light of the fact

    that it has been shown to be associated with a number

    of

    overt physiological and behavioural changes. One

    unconscious

    mechanism associated with these menstrual

    cycle

    changes might be that of olfactory perceptions.

    Alexander and Noonan

    [52], and

    Symons
    [53]

    have

    argued that hidden oestrous has evolved because

    females

    need to trick males into forming a bond. Males unaware

    of

    female
    s fertility would remain

    bonded to ensure

    impregnation and paternity. A female providing clues to

    her ovulation might risk losing male

    investment, due to

    paternal uncertainty and the limited temporal reproductive

    interaction. This development

    would implicate the male fear

    of cuckoldry as an evolutionary pressure

    [50]. The

    outcome

    would be that the female
    s

    ability to secure paternal care is

    affected by mechanisms that increase temporal aspects of

    the pair bond and

    enhance male con
    fidence of

    paternity.

    In contrast with this line of argument, Benshoff and

    Thornhill

    [54] and Symons

    [53] have

    proposed a second

    evolutionary scenario in which hidden oestrous evolved to

    increase the chances of successful

    cuckoldry by females so

    they
    ‘‘can

    escape the negative consequences of being pawns

    in marriage games
    ’’

    ([55]

    p. 350). Once monogamy is

    established, a

    female
    s best strategy would be to

    copulate

    outside the pair bond because she can then obtain superior

    genes with a certain expectation of

    paternal investment. In

    this case the outcome is genetically superior offspring.

    These two hypotheses imply

    different impacts of

    heritable traits. If those genes which induce paternal care

    were relevant for offspring

    success, a male paternitysecuring

    function for lost oestrous would be possible. If

    there are other relevant

    traits not related to paternal care but

    relevant to offspring survival, then hidden oestrous could

    allow

    females to exploit occasional opportunities to mate

    outside the pair bond

    [56]. In both

    cases, male knowledge of

    ovulation may be selected against because it would hinder

    the

    female
    s mating strategies

    [52,57].

    Rec

    ently, the second hypothesis has received considerable

    support. Bellis and Baker

    [58] conducted

    a study of

    2708 females and found those 13.8% of 145

    unprotected

    extra-pair copulations (EPC) occurred during

    the fertile

    period and were preceded in most cases by intra-pair

    copulations (IPC). EPCs were rarely followed

    by IPCs.

    According to his study EPC and thus female

    in
    fidelity peaks

    at ovulation. The

    authors conclude that these results hint at

    female-induced sperm competition, which would be

    expected by the

    second hypothesis of the evolutionary

    function of concealed ovulation discussed above. Still it is

    unclear

    what proximate mechanism or mechanisms cue

    female EPC at ovulation. The assumption that concealed

    ovulation

    serves to deceive males is common to all these

    theories. Supposedly, females deceive males about the

    fertile

    phase of the menstrual cycle to help ensure male parental

    investment, which yields an optimal number

    of offspring.

    Additionally, concealed ovulation helps females to monopolize

    reproduction and, as a

    consequence, forces males to

    develop reproductive strategies for gaining access to

    ovulating females. It is

    reasonable to expect male counter

    strategies would develop against the deceptive attempt by

    females to conceal

    ovulation. Grammer
    [21]

    described a

    possible male counter strategy: the evolution of

    the

    androstenone
    androstenol

    signalling system. In his study,

    290 female subjects rated the odour of androstenone. A

    change in assessment

    throughout the menstrual cycle was

    found: at the time of ovulation the women found the scent of

    androstenone,

    the most dominant odour of the male armpit,

    to be more pleasant than on the other days of the menstrual

    cycle.

    These results suggest that there is a change in the

    emotional evaluation of males triggered by the reaction

    to

    androstenone. The
    findings

    support previous results by

    Maiworm

    [59], which

    were of borderline signi
    ficance.

    Male

    body odour is usually perceived as unattractive and

    unpleasant by females but this evaluation changes at

    the

    point in the menstrual cycle when conception is most likely.

    This

    finding is underlined by the fact that

    anosmia to

    androstenone also varies with cycle. At the conceptual

    optimum we

    find fewer anosmic females. It could

    be

    suggested that changes in anosmia during the cycle could

    also be a female strategy, although more data need

    to be

    gathered to prove this hypothesis. Thus the change in female

    attitudes towards male body odour could

    have a strong

    impact on mate selection and perhaps self-initiated

    copulations by females. If we regard the

    androstenol


    androsten

    one-signaling system, the situation for androstenol

    seems clear, it makes males more attractive for

    females.

    Female advantage in this case is nil, unless

    fitter males

    produce more

    androstenol. The situation is more complicated

    because producing androstenol inevitably produces

    androstenone.

    The androstenone production has a disadvantage

    in its unpleasantness. Hence

    attractiveness-enhancing

    androstenol immediately oxidizes to androstenone,

    which repels females. A

    non-producing male could do quite

    well in a population of producers, because females would

    not be repelled by

    his body odour. So the attractivenessenhancing

    component of the smell does not seem to be the

    main, or at

    least only, function of the signalling system.

    Regarding androstenone, the fact that females assessed

    its

    odour as more pleasant at the time of ovulation could be of

    advantage for males, as odorous males will be

    more

    successful when approaching ovulating females, rather than

    non-ovulating females. This suggests that

    males use a kind

    of passive

    ovulation-radarfor the detection of the actually

    hidden

    ovulation.

    K. Grammer

    140 et al. / European Journal of

    Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology 118 (2005)

    135
    142

    Females faced with an evolved male strategy to detect

    hidden ovulation would be likely

    to develop a counter

    strategy. One possible strategy could be to manipulate male

    cognition and thus adaptive

    male information processing in

    mate selection. Research on many species of non-human

    primates (especially on

    rhesus monkeys) has shown the

    ability to perceive ovulation by smell. Although normally

    motivated to copulate,

    when sexually inexperienced rhesus

    males were made anosmic they showed no further sexual

    motivation despite a

    powerful visual cue: the

    female
    s

    swelling

    [60].

    Furthermore, rhesus males show no interest in

    ovariectomized rhesus females, presumably because

    ovariectomized

    rhesus females lose the odour characteristic of

    ovulation. Rhesus males regain interest in

    copulation when

    the vaginal secretions from non-ovariectomized females are

    applied to ovariectomized females.

    Studies on menstrual

    cycle

    fluctuations in the fatty-acid

    composition of women
    s

    vaginal

    fluids indicated that a similar type

    of signalling

    system might also exist in humans
    [16,

    61
    [col

    or=#000066]63][/color]
    . For example,

    human vaginal secretions have a

    composition that is similar

    to the vaginal secretions of female rhesus monkeys. The

    application to

    ovariectomized female rhesus monkeys, either

    of human, or rhesus vaginal secretions, induced

    similar

    activation of rhesus male sexual interest

    [64].

    The

    behaviourally active fraction of the rhesus

    vaginal

    secretions
    referred to as

    Copulins’—consists of volatile,

    short-chained fatty acids

    [65]. These

    same substances (i.e.,

    the short-chained fatty acids: acetic, propanoic, butanoic,

    methylpropanoic,

    methylbutanoic, methylpentanoic acid)

    occur in human vaginal secretions, albeit in slightly different

    amounts

    [16]. In

    addition, the composition of these copulins

    varies during the menstrual cycle

    [62].

    Cowley

    et al.
    [66]

    found that rhesus vaginal secretions

    change

    peoples
    assessment of other people,

    and that the

    application of copulins tends to yield a more positive

    impression of females. Doty et al.

    [67] used a

    questionnaire

    to evaluate the intensity and pleasantness of different

    vaginal

    fl
    uids from a

    complete menstrual cycle. They found that

    odour at ovulation was both the most intense odour and the

    least

    unpleasant.

    In a study by Juette (unpublished data) synthesized

    female vaginal secretions

    (
    Copulins) were tested for their

    ability to act as signals for males.

    Menstrual, ovulatory and

    pre-menstrual fatty acid compositions of Copulins and an

    odourless water control were

    presented to 60 non-smoking

    male subjects for 25 min in a double-blind experiment. To

    control for changes in

    sex hormones that were induced by

    copulins, saliva-samples were taken before and after presentation.

    While

    inhaling either a composition of copulins or a

    control, males rated pictures of females for attractiveness.

    It

    was shown that ovulatory fatty acid compositions stimulated

    male androgen secretion and changed the

    discriminatory

    cognitive capacities of males with regard to female attractiveness

    in that males became less

    discriminating. As we can

    learn from the above examples, human pheromones seem to

    work as beautifully balanced

    strategic

    weapons
    in

    the

    battle of the

    sexes
    and the

    war of

    signals
    resulting from

    asymmetric

    investment theory.

    2.

    Conclusion
    As we can learn from the reviewed studies

    on

    pheromones, the model of humans being only optical

    animals has to be revised. Human sociosexual

    interactions

    are in
    fluenced by

    pheromones, even if they cannot be

    detected consciously. Pheromones have the potential

    to

    in
    fluence human behaviour and

    physiology and so there has

    to be asked the question, in which way the modern striving

    for cleanliness and

    odourlessness affects our everyday social

    lives and human reproductive success in the future. What we

    know at

    the moment, as many studies in the last few years

    have pointed out, is that the human sense of smell has by

    far

    been underestimated in the past and that humans, like other

    animals, use olfactory signals for the

    transmission of

    biologically relevant

    information.

    References
    [1] Kohl JV, Atzmueller M, Fink B, Grammer K. Human pheromones:

    integrating neuroendocrinology

    and ethology. Neuroendocrinol

    Lett

    2001;22:309
    21.

    [2] Zajonc

    RB. Feeling and thinking: preferences need no inferences. Am

    Psychol

    1980;35:151
    75.

    [3] Karlson P,

    Luscher M.

    Pheromones: a new term for a class of

    biologically active substances.

    Nature 1959;183:55
    6.

    [4]

    McClintock MK. Human pheromones: primers, releasers, signallers or

    modulators? In: Wallen K, Schneider E,

    editors. Reproduction in

    context. Cambridge, MA: MIT Press; 2000. p.

    335
    420.

    [5] Graham JM, Desjardins

    C. Classical conditioning: induction of luteinizing

    hormone and testosterone secretion in anticipation of

    sexual

    activity. Science

    1980;210:1039
    41.

    [6] Cutler WB.

    Human sex-attractant pheromones: discovery, research,

    development, and application in sex therapy. Psychiat

    Ann

    1999;29:54
    9.

    [7] Wysocki

    CJ, Lepri JJ. Consequences of removing the vomeronasal

    organ. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol

    1991;39:661
    9.

    [8] Tirindelli R,

    Mucignat-Caretta C, Ryba NJP. Molecular aspects of

    pheromonal communication via the vomeronasal organ of

    mammals.

    Trends Neurosci

    1998;21:482
    6.

    [9] Halpern M. The

    organization and function of the vomeronasal system.

    Ann Rev Neurosci

    1987;10:325
    62.

    [10] Monti-Bloch L,

    Jennings-White C, Berliner DL. The human

    vomeronasal system: a review. Ann N Y Acad Sci Nov

    30

    1998;855:373
    89.

    [11] Smith

    TD, Siegel MI, Mooney MP, Burdi AR, Fabrizio PA, Clemente

    FR. Searching for the vomeronasal organ of adult

    humans:

    preliminary

    fi
    ndings

    on location, structure, and size. Microsc Res

    Tech

    1998;41:483
    91.

    [12]

    Grosser BI, Monti-Bloch L, Jennings-White C, Berliner DL. Behavioural

    and electrophysiological effects of

    androstadienone, a human

    pheromone. Psychoneuroendocrinology

    2000;25:289
    99.

    [13] Rodriguez I,

    Greer CA, MokMY, Mombaerts P. A putative pheromone

    receptor gene expressed in human olfactory mucosa. Nat

    Genet

    2000;26:18
    9.

    [14]

    Brooksbank BWL, Wilson DAA, MacSweeney DA. Fate of androsta-

    4, 16-dien-3-one and the origin of

    3
    a-hydroxy-5a-androst-16-ene in

    man. J Endocrinol

    1972;52:239
    [font=AdvP41153C]51.

    [/fon

    t]
    K. Grammer et al. / European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive

    Biology 118 (2005) 135
    142

    141

    [15] Gower DB, Ruparelia BA. Olfaction in humans with special

    reference to

    odourous 16-androstenes: their occurrence, perception and possible

    social, psychological and

    sexual impact. J Endocrinol

    1993;137:167
    87.

    [16] Michael RP,

    Bonsall RW, Kutner M. Volatile fatty acids,

    Copulins, in

    human vaginal secretions. Psychoneuroendocrinol

    1975;1:153
    62.

    [17] van der Lee S,

    Boot LM. Spontaneous pseudopregnancy in mice. Acta

    Physiol Pharmacol Nee

    1955;4:442
    3.

    [18] Whitten WK.

    Modi
    fication of the estrous cycle of

    the mouse by

    external stimuli associated with the male. J Endocrinol

    1956;13:

    399
    404.

    [19] Bruce HM.

    An exteroceptive block to pregnancy in the mouse. Nature

    1959;184:105.

    [20] Vandenburgh JG. Effect of the

    presence of the male on the sexual

    maturation of female mice. Endocrinology

    1967;81:345
    9.

    [21] Grammer K.

    5-
    a-androst-16en-3a-on: a male pheromone? A brief

    report Ethol Sociobiol

    1993;14:201
    8.

    [22] Miller EM. The

    pheromone androstenol: evolutionary considerations.

    Mankind Q

    1999;39:455
    67.

    [23] McClintock MK.

    Menstrual synchrony and suppression.

    Nature

    1971;229:244
    5.

    [24]

    Preti G, Cutler WB, Garcia CR, Krieger A, Huggins GR, Lawley HJ.

    Human axillary secretions

    in
    fluence

    women
    s menstrual cycles: the

    role

    of donor extracts of females. Horm Behav

    1986;20:474
    82.

    [25] Cutler WB,

    Preti G, Krieger A, Huggins GR, Garcia CR, Lawley HJ.

    Human axillary secretions

    in
    fluence

    women
    s menstrual cycles: the

    role

    of donor extracts from men. Horm Behav

    1986;20:463
    73.

    [26] Ellis BJ,

    Garber J. Psychosocial antecedents in variation in

    girls


    pubertal

    timing: maternal depression, stepfather presence, and marital

    and family stress. Child Dev

    2000;71:485
    501.

    [27] Kirk-Smith M,

    Booth MA, Carroll D, Davies P. Human social attitudes

    affected by androstenol. Res Comm Psych Psychiat

    Behav

    1978;3:379
    84.

    [28] Van

    Toller C, Kirk-Smith M, Lombard J, Dodd GH. Skin conductance

    and subjective assessments associated with the odour

    of 5
    a-androstan-

    3-one. Biol Psychol

    1983;16:85
    107.

    [29] Benton D,

    Wastell V. Effects of androstenol on human sexual arousal.

    Biol Psychol

    1986;22:141
    7.

    [30] Filsinger EE,

    Braun JJ, Monte WC. An examination of the effects of

    putative pheromones on human judgements. Ethol

    Sociobiol

    1985;6:227
    36.

    [31]

    Doty RL, Snyder PJ, Huggins GR, Lowry LD. Endocrine, cardiovascular,

    and psychological correlates of olfactory

    sensitivity changes

    during the human menstrual cycle. J Comp Physiol

    Psychol

    1981;95:45
    60.

    [32]

    Benton D. The in
    fluence of

    androstenol, a putative human

    pheromone


    on mood

    throughout the menstrual cycle. Biol

    Psychol

    1982;15:249
    56.

    [33]

    Thorne F, Neave N, Scholey A, Moss M, Fink B. Effects of putative

    male pheromones on female ratings of male

    attractiveness: in
    fluence

    of oral

    contraception and the menstrual cycle. Neuroendocrinol

    Lett

    2002;23:291
    7.

    [34] Black

    SL, Biron C. Androstenol as a human pheromone: no effect on

    perceived attractiveness. Behav Neural Biol

    1982;34:326
    30.

    [35] Rogel MJ. A

    critical examination of the possibility of higher prinmate

    reproductive and sexual pheromones. Psych Bull

    1978;85:810
    30.

    [36] Morris NM,

    Udry J. Pheromonal in
    fluences on human

    sexual behaviour:

    an experimental search. J Biosocial Sci

    1978;10:147
    57.

    [37] Cowley JJ,

    Brooksbank BWL. Human exposure to putative pheromones

    and changes in aspects of social behaviour. J Steroid

    Biochem

    Mol Biol

    1991;39:647
    59.

    [38] Cutler WB,

    Friedmann E, McCoy NL. Pheromonal

    in
    fluences on

    sociosexual behaviour

    in men. Arch Sex Behav

    1998;27:1
    13.

    [39] McCoy NL, Pitino

    L. Pheromonal in
    fluences on

    sociosexual behaviour

    in young women. Physiol Behav

    2002;75:367
    75.

    [40] Hamilton WD,

    Zuk M. Heritable true
    fitness and

    bright birds: a role for

    parasites. Science

    1982;218:384
    7.

    [41] Folstad I,

    Karter AJ. Parasites, bright males, and the immunocompetence

    handicap. Am Nat

    1992;139:603
    22.

    [42] Jordan WC,

    Bruford MW. New perspectives on mate choice and the

    MHC. Heredity

    1998;81:239
    45.

    [43] Hurst JL,

    Payne CE, Nevison CM, Marie AD, Humphries RE,

    Robertson DHL. et al. Individual recognition in mice mediated

    by

    major urinary proteins. Nature

    2001;414:631
    4.

    [44] Alberts SC,

    Ober C. Genetic variability of the MHC: a review of nonpathogen-

    mediated selective mechanisms. Yb Phys

    Anthropol

    1993;36:71
    89.

    [45]

    Brown JL, Eklund A. Kin recognition and the major histocompatibility

    complex: an integrative review. Am Nat

    1994;143:435
    61.

    [46] Wedekind C,

    Seebeck T, Bettens F, Paepke AJ. MHC-dependent mate

    preferences in humans. Proc R Soc Lond B

    1995;260:245
    9.

    [47] Thornhill R,

    Gangstad SW. The scent of symmetry: a human

    sex pheromone that signals

    fitness? Evol Hum Behav

    1999;20:

    175
    201.

    [48] Ober C,

    Weitkamp LR, Cox N, Dytch H, Kostyu D, Elias S. HLA and

    mate choice in humans. Am J Hum Genet

    1997;61:497
    504.

    [49] Milinkski M,

    Wedekind C. Evidence for MHC-correlated perfume

    preferences in humans. Behav Ecol

    2001;12:140
    9.

    [50] Trivers RL.

    Parental investment and sexual selection. In: Campbell B,

    editor. Sexual selection and the descent of man

    1871
    1971. Chicago:

    Aldine; 1972.

    p. 136.

    [51] Buss DM. Sex differences in human mate

    preferences
    evolutionary

    hypothesis

    tested in 37 cultures. Behav Brain Sci

    1989;12:1
    49.

    [52] Alexander RD,

    Noonan KM. Concealment of ovulation, parental care,

    and human social evolution. In: Chagnon NA, Irons WG,

    editors.

    Evolutionary biology and human social behavior. Scituate: North

    Duxbury Press; 1979.

    [53] Symons

    D. The evolution of human sexuality. Oxford: Oxford University

    Press; 1979.

    [54] Benshoof L, Thornhill R. The

    evolution of monogamy and concealed

    ovulation in humans. J Soc Biol Struct

    1979;2:95
    106.

    [55] Gray JP,Wolfe

    LD. Human female sexual cycles and the concealment

    of ovulation problem. J Soc Biol Struc

    1983;6:345
    52.

    [56] Strassman B.

    Sexual selection, paternal care, and concealed ovulation

    in humans. Ethol Sociobiol

    1981;2:31
    40.

    [57] Daniels D. The

    evolution of concealed ovulation and self-deception.

    Ethol Sociobiol

    1983;4:87
    96.

    [58] Bellis MA, Baker

    RR. Do females promote sperm-competition? Data

    for humans Anim Behav

    1991;40(5):997
    9.

    [59] Maiworm RE.

    In
    fluence of androstenone,

    androstenol, menstrual

    cycle, and oral contraceptives on the attractivity ratings of female

    probands. Paper

    presented at the 9th Congress of ECRO; 1990.

    [60] Michael RP, Keverne EB. Pheromones in the communication of

    sexual

    status in primates. Nature

    1968;218:746
    9.

    [61] Michael RP,

    Bonsall RW,Warner P. Human vaginal secretions: volatile

    fatty acid content. Science

    1974;186:1217
    9.

    [62] Preti G,

    Huggins GR. Cyclical changes in volatile acidic metabolites

    of human vaginal secretions and their relation to

    ovulation. J Chem

    Ecol

    1975;1(3):361
    76.

    [63] Waltman R,

    Tricom V,Wilson Jr GE, Lewin AH, Goldberg NL, Chang

    MMY. Volatile fatty acids in vaginal secretions: human

    pheromones?

    Lancet 1973;2:496.

    [64] Michael RP. Determinants of primate reproductive behavior.

    Acta

    endocrinol

    1972;166(Suppl.):322
    61.

    [65]

    Curtis RF, Ballantine JA, Keverne EB, Bonsall RW, Michael

    RP.

    Identi
    fication of primate

    sexual pheromones and the properties of

    synthetic attractants. Nature

    1971;232:396
    8.

    [66] Cowley JJ,

    Johnson AL, Brooksbank BWL. The effect of two odorous

    compounds on performance in an assessment-of-people test.

    Psychoneuroendocrinology

    1977;2:159
    [size=1

    ]72.

    [67] Doty RL, Ford M, Preti G. Changes in the intensity and pleasentness

    of human vaginal odors during

    the menstrual cycle.

    Science

    1975;190:1316[/size]
    8.



    K. Grammer
    142

    et al. / European Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology and Reproductive Biology

    118 (2005)

    135
    142


  2. #2
    Banned User jvkohl's Avatar
    Join Date
    Jun 2002
    Location
    Northern Georgia
    Posts
    1,127
    Rep Power
    0

    Default Ego booster

    Check out the first

    citation in the article:

    1.1. Smell
    According toKohl et al. [1] the sense of smell has largely

    been

    underestimated in reproductive

    behaviours....
    -------------------------------------------------------------

    [1] Kohl JV, Atzmueller M,

    Fink B, Grammer K. Human pheromones:
    integrating neuroendocrinology and ethology. Neuroendocrinol

    Lett
    2001;22:309–21.


    JVK

  3. #3
    Stranger
    Join Date
    Dec 2006
    Posts
    17
    Rep Power
    0

    Default

    Interesting - read most of

    this before. The VNO rears its head again (contentious subject!! ;~} ). The androstenone fixation worries me, maybe

    healthy males would wash more and therefore convert androstenol less rapidly. (just a thought). I have always found

    my mrs has a stronger reaction to my natural armpit scent rather than the phero enhanced one. Are we missing

    something in the sweat. It's hard to get hold of the latest analysis as these scientific papers tend to require

    payment. Has anyone got the table of the 44 or so substances that have been found in human apocrine secretions? They

    want serious money for the paper that contains the latest analysis - I may be interested, but not that interested

    that I can't wait till the info is published freely!!

  4. #4
    Banned User jvkohl's Avatar
    Join Date
    Jun 2002
    Location
    Northern Georgia
    Posts
    1,127
    Rep Power
    0

    Default

    Quote Originally Posted by ratspeaker
    It's hard to

    get hold of the latest analysis as these scientific papers tend to require payment.
    This depends

    somewhat on who you know, and who knows you--brag, brag, brag...

    Quote Originally Posted by ratspeaker
    Has anyone got the table

    of the 44 or so substances that have been found in human apocrine secretions?
    If you are referring to

    the paper by Penn et al--Yes, I do. But, I haven't said anything about it because it is not yet referenced on

    Medline (just checked a couple days ago) --and I'm not even sure it's been published yet.

    The lead author:

    Dustin Penn invited me to speak at a symposium he organized (circa 1998). He is now working in Vienna with other

    mutual associates, most notably Karl Grammer (co-author of the Kohl et al., 2001 review). To borrow a catch phrase

    from a commercial "It's the network" --and the network counts when you want the latest information.

    However,

    in this case the latest information is related to immune system (MHC/HLA) pheromones, and only minimally related to

    sex differences--the main focus of Love-Scent discussions. That's another reason I haven't mentioned it. It takes

    human pheromonal communication to a much higher level of complexity, but one that I hope will involve you in future

    discussions.

    JVK

  5. #5
    Stranger
    Join Date
    Dec 2006
    Posts
    17
    Rep Power
    0

    Default

    To be honest I can't

    remember but the abstract mentioned 44 substances 13 of which were sex specific. The reason I ask is because I

    still find natural apocrine secretions gain more response in intimate situations than synthetic putative pheromones

    (that is not to say the synthetics don't exibit an effect). Therefore, I would consider a complete list of what

    has been found may indicate what it is that is being missed. The earlier analysis with adrenalin induced sweat is

    suspect since sweat is produced in a number of situations (i.e fear) and the analysis required as a starting point

    is apocrine secretions produced by a sexual encounter( i'm sure we signal fear pheromonally as well ;~}). I find

    your approach reasonable in that androsterone and androstenol are both proven choices for putative pheromones with

    an effect, but I feel elements are still missing and that the situation is more complex. The substances that have

    been identified by berliner et al have merit, even if their researches have branched away from sex pheromones. The

    effect of -dienone seems pretty conclusive even if their methodology is unproven. Has any test been done on

    -dienol? It is very hard to get to the facts due to the hijacking of the science by people with a desire to cash in,

    we need some more objective analysis of the chemistry of attraction and a good starting point is the substances

    contained in apocrine secretions since we must produce the pheromones that cause attraction naturally and thus

    surely a chemical analysis of these is a good place to start seeking the answers.

  6. #6
    Banned User jvkohl's Avatar
    Join Date
    Jun 2002
    Location
    Northern Georgia
    Posts
    1,127
    Rep Power
    0

    Default

    Quote Originally Posted by ratspeaker
    To be honest I

    can't remember but the abstract mentioned 44 substances 13 of which were sex specific.
    Here's the

    URL for the

    abstract:
    http://www.journals.royalsoc.ac.uk/(...lts,1:111337,1

    Quote Originally Posted by ratspeaker
    I find

    your approach reasonable in that androsterone and androstenol are both proven choices for putative pheromones with

    an effect, but I feel elements are still missing and that the situation is more complex. The substances that have

    been identified by berliner et al have merit, even if their researches have branched away from sex pheromones. The

    effect of -dienone seems pretty conclusive even if their methodology is unproven.
    -dienone, perhaps

    in picogram amounts may be associated both with the odor of androsterone, and with the physiological effects on

    luteinizing hormone of androstenol--as suggested in recent work by Coureaud on rabbit mammary pheromones. But there

    has been little time for researchers to integrate his data into study design.

    Quote Originally Posted by ratspeaker
    It is very

    hard to get to the facts due to the hijacking of the science by people with a desire to cash in, we need some more

    objective analysis of the chemistry of attraction and a good starting point is the substances contained in apocrine

    secretions since we must produce the pheromones that cause attraction naturally and thus surely a chemical analysis

    of these is a good place to start seeking the answers.
    Unfortunately, funding is scarce, so all that

    can be done at this point is attempt to integrate the research that is being funded. This does not present a

    straightforward link from pheromone to hormones and behavior, but the pathway has become clear. Even Penn et al.'s

    work on genetic diversity includes sex specific correlates. By incorporating the model that includes the pathway

    (i.e., mine) into study design, we may begin to see some meaningful findings that link the neuroimmunology and

    neuroendocrinology of behavioral affect.

    JVK

Thread Information

Users Browsing this Thread

There are currently 1 users browsing this thread. (0 members and 1 guests)

Similar Threads

  1. MAJOR SEXUAL HITS BECAUSE OF PHEROMONES
    By johnngo19 in forum Humor
    Replies: 37
    Last Post: 09-08-2006, 07:55 PM
  2. Using Pheromones for Attraction & Bonding -Article
    By Io_Sono in forum Pheromone Discussion
    Replies: 37
    Last Post: 03-09-2005, 07:42 PM
  3. Lily of the Valley and Pheromones
    By Thanatos in forum Women's Forum
    Replies: 22
    Last Post: 07-15-2004, 10:00 AM
  4. Pheromones & Human Sexuality???
    By **DONOTDELETE** in forum Archives 1
    Replies: 4
    Last Post: 11-01-2001, 05:17 PM
  5. Other non sexual pheromones that bond?
    By **DONOTDELETE** in forum Archives 2
    Replies: 5
    Last Post: 06-24-2001, 08:38 AM

Bookmarks

Posting Permissions

  • You may not post new threads
  • You may not post replies
  • You may not post attachments
  • You may not edit your posts
  •