bjf
10-18-2004, 05:56 PM
http://www.scienceblog.com/community/older/2003/G/20035356.html
November 2003
From Society
for Neuroscience
Human senses not distinct, but interact in many ways, studies show
NEW ORLEANS, Nov. 10
- Until fairly recently, scientists believed that the information gathered by each of the senses -- touch, sight,
hearing, smell and taste -- was processed in separate areas of the brain. Research is now revealing, however, that
there is a complex interaction between the senses in the brain--an interaction that enables us to understand the
world in a unified way.
"Since we perceive the world as a whole and not split up into different sensory
modalities, it's important to study how signals from the senses affect each other in the brain," says Colin
Blakemore, PhD, of Oxford University.
New research on how the senses interact is revealing some fascinating
findings: What we see affects how we perceive odors. Blind people do have a superior sense of touch. And the odd
mixing-of-the-senses condition known as synesthesia, in which people claim to "see" sounds or "hear" colors, is a
very genuine phenomenon.
Blakemore's colleagues at Oxford, led by Gemma Calvert, DPhil, have recently
completed studies that help explain how the brain combines sight and smell to amplify our perception of various
odors. Although it's believed that humans can recognize up to 10,000 different odors, we still have a poor sense of
smell compared to other animals. To assist our sense of smell, we often rely on additional information from our
visual system.
Earlier experiments have shown that when people are asked to smell an odorized liquid that has
been tinted with an appropriate color (red for strawberry, for example), their perception of the intensity and
pleasantness of the smell is greater than if the liquid is inappropriately tinted (green for strawberry) or not
tinted at all. For their current study, the Oxford researchers wanted to find what happens in the brain when odors
are matched or mismatched with pictures. Does the smell of an orange elicit a stronger response in the brain if
it's co-presented with a picture of an orange rather than a picture of toothpaste, for example?
The study
used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which measures changes in blood flow in the brain while a task,
such as smelling a scent, is carried out by a person lying in the scanner. When brain neurons become involved in a
task, they increase their firing rate, which leads to a change in blood flow to the brain area(s) where the
activated neurons are located. The fMRI scanner detects that increased blood flow, thus identifying which areas of
the brain are involved in the task.
The 12 volunteers in the Oxford study were placed in an fMRI scanner and
then shown matched and mis-matched combinations of odors and pictures (a strawberry odor with a picture of a
strawberry, for example, or a strawberry odor with a picture of an orange). "We found that areas of the brain
involved in smell perception respond differently to the picture-odor combinations," says Calvert.
"Some
regions--especially the orbitofrontal cortex and the amygdala, which are both involved in smell--responded more
strongly to congruent than to incongruent picture-odor combinations." This finding indicates, she says, that the
brain amplifies information gathered from those two senses when the information fits well together.
Calvert and her colleagues plan next to investigate if this multi-sensory effect is stronger for
food-related smells than for other smells.
Although it's a common popular belief that blind people have a
superior sense of touch, the research on this topic, which has spanned nearly 100 years, has been controversial. New
findings from Duquesne University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, may, however, finally put this question to rest.
Using rigorous experimental techniques, DU researchers have found that blind people do have a superior sense of
touch.
For this study, Daniel Goldreich, PhD, and his colleagues tested 47 sighted and 37 blind volunteers,
ranging in age from about 18 to 70. The scientists constructed a special, computer-controlled device designed to tap
index fingers with different pieces of plastic. Some pieces were completely smooth. Others contained thin grooves of
various widths cut into their surfaces. In general, the narrower the grooves, the more difficult it is to feel them.
During the experiment, the volunteers were asked to determine which piece was touching their finger, but without
moving the finger. Thus, the test measured what is known as "passive tactile acuity" rather than "active tactile
acuity," for which the finger is allowed to move. Each tap lasted for one second, and the force of the tap was
light: either 10 grams or 50 grams. By tapping with pieces of different groove width, the scientists were able to
determine the minimum groove width that each volunteer could reliably distinguish from a smooth surface.
"On
average, blind people were able to distinguish thinner grooves than sighted people," says Goldreich. Although the
sense of touch declined with age at a similar rate in the blind and sighted groups, the sense of touch of the
average blind person in the study was about as good as that of an average sighted person who was 23 years
younger.
"We also found that people who were born blind didn't have a better sense of touch than those who
became blind later in life," says Goldreich. Nor did the ability to read Braille enhance a blind person's sense of
touch. Goldreich and his colleagues found that blind Braille readers had no better sense of touch than blind
nonreaders.
The sighted people in the study were tested with their eyes uncovered and in a lit environment.
Goldreich is now investigating whether the tactile acuity of sighted people improves if they are temporarily
deprived of vision.
One of the more fascinating mixing of the senses is a condition known as synesthesia,
which affects about one in every 2,000 people. People with synesthesia claim that real sensory experiences trigger
other entirely inappropriate perceptions. For instance, they might "see" sounds, "hear" colors, or "feel" tastes.
The condition is not a new one; it has been known to the scientific community for at least 300 years, although it
hasn't been much investigated until relatively recently, and some still doubt whether it is a genuine neurological
condition.
A common type of synesthesia is "colored-hearing." People with this condition see specific colors
in their "mind's eye" when they hear words, letters or numbers spoken out loud. The term "mind's eye" is used
because although these people see the colors in front of them, the colors don't interfere with their normal vision.
Another common type of synesthesia is "colored-touch." People with this condition see colors when they feel certain
objects.
To learn more about synesthesia, Colin Blakemore's team at Oxford University recently studied an
interesting subgroup of people with the condition--people who say that they have been colored-hearing synesthetes
all their life, even after becoming blinded by injury or disease to the retina. "We wondered whether they might be
just imagining remembered colors rather than having genuine visual sensations, so long after losing their real
sight," says Megan Steven, a graduate student at Oxford and the lead author of the study.
Six volunteers with
colored-hearing synesthesia who had been blind at least 10 years participated in the study. They were asked to
describe the colors they saw when hearing the names of each day of the week, month of the year, letter of the
alphabet and/or number from 1-100 (counting by tens after the first 10 digits). Their responses were recorded. Two
months after this initial screening, the volunteers were surprised with a second, identical test.
"What we
found was an amazing correlation between the two testing days," says Steven. "If a subject said that A was pale
green on the first testing day, they would say that the letter was a light or pale green on the surprise testing day
two months later. This is strong evidence that they were experiencing a genuine phenomenon--they actually appeared
to be seeing colors in their mind's eye, even though they had been blind for at least 10 years." These findings
suggest, she adds, that the visual areas of the brain can still remain active after blindness.
Two of the six
volunteers also had a special form of colored-touch that Steven coined "colored-Braille," which caused them to see
colors when they read Braille letters. The repeat test showed that their responses to the colors they "touched" as
they read were also genuine. Since they learned Braille after they started to become blind, this implies that the
connections in their brains leading to the color sensations were established through some kind of learning.
Synesthesia runs in families and almost certainly depends on a genetic factor. However the particular form that it
takes might depend on individual experience.
In a further experiment, the researchers tried to determine what
was driving the synesthesia. For the blind people with colored hearing, the meaning of a word, rather than its sound
alone, seems to be important. For example, when the word "March" was used in a sentence to mean a particular month
of the year, one volunteer saw a "dark greeny blue" color. But when he heard the same word used as a verb ("The
soldiers march across the bridge.") he did not see a color. Interestingly, when the same volunteer, who also has
colored-Braille synesthesia, read the number 1, the musical note A, or the letter A in Braille--all of which are
represented by a single dot in the upper-left corner--he saw the same color (white). His colored-Braille synesthesia
appears to depend on the pattern of the dots, not the semantic representation.
In the next step of their
research, Steven and her colleagues are using fMRI to investigate which areas of the brain in late-blind synesthetes
are activated during colored-hearing and colored-Braille.
November 2003
From Society
for Neuroscience
Human senses not distinct, but interact in many ways, studies show
NEW ORLEANS, Nov. 10
- Until fairly recently, scientists believed that the information gathered by each of the senses -- touch, sight,
hearing, smell and taste -- was processed in separate areas of the brain. Research is now revealing, however, that
there is a complex interaction between the senses in the brain--an interaction that enables us to understand the
world in a unified way.
"Since we perceive the world as a whole and not split up into different sensory
modalities, it's important to study how signals from the senses affect each other in the brain," says Colin
Blakemore, PhD, of Oxford University.
New research on how the senses interact is revealing some fascinating
findings: What we see affects how we perceive odors. Blind people do have a superior sense of touch. And the odd
mixing-of-the-senses condition known as synesthesia, in which people claim to "see" sounds or "hear" colors, is a
very genuine phenomenon.
Blakemore's colleagues at Oxford, led by Gemma Calvert, DPhil, have recently
completed studies that help explain how the brain combines sight and smell to amplify our perception of various
odors. Although it's believed that humans can recognize up to 10,000 different odors, we still have a poor sense of
smell compared to other animals. To assist our sense of smell, we often rely on additional information from our
visual system.
Earlier experiments have shown that when people are asked to smell an odorized liquid that has
been tinted with an appropriate color (red for strawberry, for example), their perception of the intensity and
pleasantness of the smell is greater than if the liquid is inappropriately tinted (green for strawberry) or not
tinted at all. For their current study, the Oxford researchers wanted to find what happens in the brain when odors
are matched or mismatched with pictures. Does the smell of an orange elicit a stronger response in the brain if
it's co-presented with a picture of an orange rather than a picture of toothpaste, for example?
The study
used functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which measures changes in blood flow in the brain while a task,
such as smelling a scent, is carried out by a person lying in the scanner. When brain neurons become involved in a
task, they increase their firing rate, which leads to a change in blood flow to the brain area(s) where the
activated neurons are located. The fMRI scanner detects that increased blood flow, thus identifying which areas of
the brain are involved in the task.
The 12 volunteers in the Oxford study were placed in an fMRI scanner and
then shown matched and mis-matched combinations of odors and pictures (a strawberry odor with a picture of a
strawberry, for example, or a strawberry odor with a picture of an orange). "We found that areas of the brain
involved in smell perception respond differently to the picture-odor combinations," says Calvert.
"Some
regions--especially the orbitofrontal cortex and the amygdala, which are both involved in smell--responded more
strongly to congruent than to incongruent picture-odor combinations." This finding indicates, she says, that the
brain amplifies information gathered from those two senses when the information fits well together.
Calvert and her colleagues plan next to investigate if this multi-sensory effect is stronger for
food-related smells than for other smells.
Although it's a common popular belief that blind people have a
superior sense of touch, the research on this topic, which has spanned nearly 100 years, has been controversial. New
findings from Duquesne University in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, may, however, finally put this question to rest.
Using rigorous experimental techniques, DU researchers have found that blind people do have a superior sense of
touch.
For this study, Daniel Goldreich, PhD, and his colleagues tested 47 sighted and 37 blind volunteers,
ranging in age from about 18 to 70. The scientists constructed a special, computer-controlled device designed to tap
index fingers with different pieces of plastic. Some pieces were completely smooth. Others contained thin grooves of
various widths cut into their surfaces. In general, the narrower the grooves, the more difficult it is to feel them.
During the experiment, the volunteers were asked to determine which piece was touching their finger, but without
moving the finger. Thus, the test measured what is known as "passive tactile acuity" rather than "active tactile
acuity," for which the finger is allowed to move. Each tap lasted for one second, and the force of the tap was
light: either 10 grams or 50 grams. By tapping with pieces of different groove width, the scientists were able to
determine the minimum groove width that each volunteer could reliably distinguish from a smooth surface.
"On
average, blind people were able to distinguish thinner grooves than sighted people," says Goldreich. Although the
sense of touch declined with age at a similar rate in the blind and sighted groups, the sense of touch of the
average blind person in the study was about as good as that of an average sighted person who was 23 years
younger.
"We also found that people who were born blind didn't have a better sense of touch than those who
became blind later in life," says Goldreich. Nor did the ability to read Braille enhance a blind person's sense of
touch. Goldreich and his colleagues found that blind Braille readers had no better sense of touch than blind
nonreaders.
The sighted people in the study were tested with their eyes uncovered and in a lit environment.
Goldreich is now investigating whether the tactile acuity of sighted people improves if they are temporarily
deprived of vision.
One of the more fascinating mixing of the senses is a condition known as synesthesia,
which affects about one in every 2,000 people. People with synesthesia claim that real sensory experiences trigger
other entirely inappropriate perceptions. For instance, they might "see" sounds, "hear" colors, or "feel" tastes.
The condition is not a new one; it has been known to the scientific community for at least 300 years, although it
hasn't been much investigated until relatively recently, and some still doubt whether it is a genuine neurological
condition.
A common type of synesthesia is "colored-hearing." People with this condition see specific colors
in their "mind's eye" when they hear words, letters or numbers spoken out loud. The term "mind's eye" is used
because although these people see the colors in front of them, the colors don't interfere with their normal vision.
Another common type of synesthesia is "colored-touch." People with this condition see colors when they feel certain
objects.
To learn more about synesthesia, Colin Blakemore's team at Oxford University recently studied an
interesting subgroup of people with the condition--people who say that they have been colored-hearing synesthetes
all their life, even after becoming blinded by injury or disease to the retina. "We wondered whether they might be
just imagining remembered colors rather than having genuine visual sensations, so long after losing their real
sight," says Megan Steven, a graduate student at Oxford and the lead author of the study.
Six volunteers with
colored-hearing synesthesia who had been blind at least 10 years participated in the study. They were asked to
describe the colors they saw when hearing the names of each day of the week, month of the year, letter of the
alphabet and/or number from 1-100 (counting by tens after the first 10 digits). Their responses were recorded. Two
months after this initial screening, the volunteers were surprised with a second, identical test.
"What we
found was an amazing correlation between the two testing days," says Steven. "If a subject said that A was pale
green on the first testing day, they would say that the letter was a light or pale green on the surprise testing day
two months later. This is strong evidence that they were experiencing a genuine phenomenon--they actually appeared
to be seeing colors in their mind's eye, even though they had been blind for at least 10 years." These findings
suggest, she adds, that the visual areas of the brain can still remain active after blindness.
Two of the six
volunteers also had a special form of colored-touch that Steven coined "colored-Braille," which caused them to see
colors when they read Braille letters. The repeat test showed that their responses to the colors they "touched" as
they read were also genuine. Since they learned Braille after they started to become blind, this implies that the
connections in their brains leading to the color sensations were established through some kind of learning.
Synesthesia runs in families and almost certainly depends on a genetic factor. However the particular form that it
takes might depend on individual experience.
In a further experiment, the researchers tried to determine what
was driving the synesthesia. For the blind people with colored hearing, the meaning of a word, rather than its sound
alone, seems to be important. For example, when the word "March" was used in a sentence to mean a particular month
of the year, one volunteer saw a "dark greeny blue" color. But when he heard the same word used as a verb ("The
soldiers march across the bridge.") he did not see a color. Interestingly, when the same volunteer, who also has
colored-Braille synesthesia, read the number 1, the musical note A, or the letter A in Braille--all of which are
represented by a single dot in the upper-left corner--he saw the same color (white). His colored-Braille synesthesia
appears to depend on the pattern of the dots, not the semantic representation.
In the next step of their
research, Steven and her colleagues are using fMRI to investigate which areas of the brain in late-blind synesthetes
are activated during colored-hearing and colored-Braille.